HIV/AIDS

                           

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane or the blood stream with a bodily fluid containing HIV, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, preseminal fluid, and breast milk. This transmission can involve anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusion, contaminated hypodermic needles, exchange between mother and baby during pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.

AIDS is now a pandemic. In 2007, it was estimated that 33.2 million people lived with the disease worldwide, and that AIDS killed an estimated 2.1 million people, including 330,000 children. Over three-quarters of these deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa. According to UNAIDS 2009 report, worldwide some 60 million people have been infected, with some 25 million deaths, and 14 million orphaned children in southern Africa alone since the epidemic began.

Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the late nineteenth or early twentieth century.

The first confirmed case of HIV AIDs in North American was with Robert R from 1954-1969. His death baffled Doctors because AIDS was not discovered and official recognized until 5^th june 1981. HIV is typically transmitted through unprotected sex or intravenous drug use,and is often associated with groups such as promiscuous gay men,illicit drug users,and sex workers. Publicity campaign around the world have aimed to counter HIV-related prejudices and misconceptions and to replace them with an accurate understanding that helps prevent new infections. Various celebrities are HIV positive. Jugde Edwin,Amanda Blake, Ian Blake from the film chariots of fire,Brad davis from the film midnight Express,Kevin Peter Hall from the film predator,Allen lee in soap opera, Simon Bailey,british Anglican priest and writer all lived with HIV .

 Although treatments for AIDS and HIV can slow the course of the disease, there is no known cure or vaccine. Antiretroviral treatment reduces both the mortality and the morbidity of HIV infection, but these drugs are expensive and routine access to antiretroviral medication is not available in all countries. Due to the difficulty in treating HIV infection, preventing infection is a key aim in controlling the AIDS pandemic, with health organizations promoting safe sex and needle-exchange programmes in attempts to slow the spread of the virus.

People with AIDS also have an increased risk of developing various cancers such as Kaposi's sarcoma, cervical cancer and cancers of the immune system known as lymphomas. Additionally, people with AIDS often have systemic symptoms of infection like fevers, sweats (particularly at night), swollen glands, chills, weakness, and weight loss. The specific opportunistic infections that AIDS patients develop depend in part on the prevalence of these infections in the geographic area in which the patient lives.HIV infection may lead to a variety of neuropsychiatric sequelae, either by infection of the now susceptible nervous system by organisms, or as a direct consequence of the illness itself.

AIDS dementia complex (ADC) is a metabolic encephalopathy induced by HIV infection and fueled by immune activation of HIV infected brain macrophages and microglia. These cells are productively infected by HIV and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin. Specific neurological impairments are manifested by cognitive, behavioral, and motor abnormalities that occur after years of HIV infection and are associated with low CD4⁺ T cell levels and high plasma viral loads.

Although the symptoms of immune deficiency characteristic of AIDS do not appear for years after a person is infected, the bulk of CD4⁺ T cell loss occurs during the first weeks of infection, especially in the intestinal mucosa, which harbors the majority of the lymphocytes found in the body. The reason for the preferential loss of mucosal CD4⁺ T cells is that a majority of mucosal CD4⁺ T cells express the CCR5 coreceptor, whereas a small fraction of CD4⁺ T cells in the bloodstream do so.

HIV seeks out and destroys CCR5 expressing CD4⁺ cells during acute infection. A vigorous immune response eventually controls the infection and initiates the clinically latent phase. However, CD4⁺ T cells in mucosal tissues remain depleted throughout the infection, although enough remain to initially ward off life-threatening infections.

In Berlin, Germany, a 42-year-old leukemia patient infected with HIV for more than a decade was given an experimental transplant of bone marrow with cells that contained an unusual natural variant of the CCR5 cell-surface receptor. This CCR5-Δ32 variant has been shown to make some cells from people who are born with it resistant to infection with some strains of HIV. Almost two years after the transplant, and even after the patient reportedly stopped taking antiretroviral medications, HIV has not been detected in the patient's blood.

A major cause of CD4⁺ T cell loss appears to result from their heightened susceptibility to apoptosis when the immune system remains activated. Although new T cells are continuously produced by the thymus to replace the ones lost, the regenerative capacity of the thymus is slowly destroyed by direct infection of its thymocytes by HIV. Eventually, the minimal number of CD4⁺ T cells necessary to maintain a sufficient immune response is lost, leading to AIDS. PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE.

CANCER,DIABETES AND HYPERTENSION

CANCER

Our bodies are continually exposed to a growing number of outside agents such as chemicals (herbicides, pesticides, plastic fumes, autofumes, and chlorination in water), radiation, tobacco smoke and increased stress, especially during our current economic turn down. And free radicals are naturally produced by the body from the breakdown of food. Excessive free radicals can cause cell damage. This can lead to pain, chronic and degenerative disease such as cancer, and even high blood pressure. And these chemicals contain cancer causing substances. Scientist have demonstrated that the cancer cell grow and proliferate more robustly when exposed to human cells than they do in a typical Petri dishes or mouse model. The cancer cell population is also more diverse than had previously understood.

DIABETES AND HYPERTENSION

Diabetes and hypertension are over presented in African-American population. These disease share genetic predisposition, medical risk factors and environmental influences as etiologic factor. A deficiency in insulin production lead to metabolic disorder known as diabetes mellitus, a condition the blood glucose reaches such a level that it exceeds that which the kidney can reabsorbs. The net effects of insulin is to enhance storage blood mobilization and oxidation of fatty acids and this is done by stimulating LDL formation, so that circulating triglycerides are hydrolyzed and free fatty acid can enter adipocyte. Insulin is required for the transport of glucose. Upper body fat distribution is correlated with the development of various health problems, including non-insulin dependent diabetes and hypertension. Upper fat distribution is greater in men, but in women, after menopause a change towards upper fat distribution is observed. This change may be due to relative decrease in lipoprotein lipase activity in the lower body region. Extreme weight gain and weight cycling as a result of yo-yo dieting may increase upper body fat.

Juvenile-onset diabetes or insulin dependent, type 1 often strikes at childhood and maturity onset diabetes or non-insulin-dependent type 2 develops rather gradually after the age of 40. Individuals with insulin-dependent diabetes, as Fredrick Banting and George Best first demonstrated in 1921, require daily insulin injections to survive and must follow carefully balanced diet and exercise regimes. Complications like kidney malfunction, cardiovascular disease, blindness, nerve impairment may arise from imprecise metabolic control provided by periodic insulin. Non- insulin dependent diabetes usually occurs in obese individuals with a genetic predisposition for this condition. These individuals may have normal or even greatly elevated insulin levels. Their symptoms arise from insulin resistance, an apparent lack of sensitivity to insulin in normally insulin responsive cells. Diet alone is sufficient to control this type of diabetes. World diabetes market analysis 2009-2023.WHO estimates the number of diabetics to exceed 350 million by 2030 worldwide. Stroke is twice as likely to occur, and heart attack 3-5 times more likely to occur. Amputation of the foot is 50 times more likely to occur if care is not taken. Avoid caffeine and caffeine containing drinks. Hard liquor, food colourings, soft drinks. Diets soft drinks have phenylalanine that can affect blood sugar levels. Once you master the collect meal patterns required, you may required few or no drugs. Larry flynt ask this question: how much are you willing to sacrifice to achieve this? Good diabetic controls can reduce the incidence of infections. But if blood sugar levels remain high in spite of medications, diabetics may be prone to bladder infections, fungal infection, tuberclousis and pneumonia. Older diabetics may eventually develop cataracts. Atherosclerosis is a problem that contributes to diabetic becoming hypertensive.

Gestational diabetes affects females during pregnancy. Undiagnosed and uncontrolled gestational diabetes can raise the risk of complications during childbirth. The baby may be bigger than she or he should be. Scientists from the national institutes of health and Harvard university found that women whose diets before becoming pregnant were high in animal fat and cholesterol has a higher risk for this diabetes.

 Medical researchers studying high blood pressure have consistently found that people with hypertension have a high level of some sort of sodium ion, potassium ion ATPase inhibitor and it is plant and animal steroids such as oubain that specifically inhibit this molecule. In such patients, inhibition of the sodium pump in the cells lining the blood vessels wall results in accumulation of sodium and calcium in theses cells and the narrowing of the vessels to create hypertension. BP with a high diastolic reading of over 130mmhg is an emergency. Activities such as doing cross word puzzles, Sudoku or word games strengthen the link between brain cells in memory control areas. They can increase mental abilities to 20-30% according to research data. It is possible for the heart to enlarge as a result of high blood pressure, unfortunately you may not known until you begin too get symptoms of heart failure. Make sure you have an ECG check because most of these chronic diseases are interwoven and intercalated. Diurectics, sometimes called water pills, are medications that act on your kidney to help your body eliminate water and salt and reduce BP. Water pills causes gout a painful swelling of the big toe, meet your doctor. Hypertension may trigger heart failure and this in turn may predispose some people to blood cloths in the leg. These blood cloths usually form in the deep veins of the calf and according to research some of theses complications develop because they don’t take their medications regularly.iof you are hypertensive you need to do all things in moderation. Go easy on the parties and club. Try not to stay out till midnight. Drive carefully, no street races, eat breakfast. Don’t stock your house with soft drinks or small chops, say no to extra tasks, release negative thought, maintain good relationship and remain patients and optimistic. Wise words of john Collins says that half of our mistakes in life arise from feeling where we ought to think and thinking where we ought to fell. Uncontrolled blood pressure may affect your ability to think remember and learn.

CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE

THIS IS THE TERM REFERRING to two lung diseases emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Both of these conditions frequently co exist.

Emphysema is caused by the long term irritation of the lung most commonly by cigarette smoke, air pollution or industrial dust. It begins with the destruction of the air sacs in the lung where oxygen from the air is exchange for carbon dioxide in the blood. The wall of the airs are thin and fragile and therefore gradual breakdown of this thin wall of the alveoli may lead to the damage of the air sacs which is irreversible and results in permanent hole in the tissue of the lower lungs. Chemical in the cigarette smoke distorts the normal balance between breakdown and replacement of elastic fibers. Emphysema does not develop abruptly rather it comes very gradually. The most obvious signs is increasing breathlessness in advanced cases. Patients find it difficult even to walk across a room and in extreme cases will be confined to a chair or unable to raise an arm without a noticeable stress in breathing. This disease is most common in developed country.

CHRONIC BRONCHITIS

This is the inflammation and eventually scarring of the lining of the bronchi tubes, when the bronchi are inflamed and or infected, less air are able to flow to and fro from the lungs and every phlegm and mucous is coughed out. Chronic bronchitis is usually caused by smoking and to a less extent by pollution. Symptoms include chronic cough, increased mucus, frequent clearing of throat, and shortness of breath. The breathlessness is due to reduced gaseous exchange. The tars in the cigarette are the chemicals which are mainly responsible for the inflammation. Smoking destroys the cilia which normally sweeps away the mucus.  The main sign is therefore a cough in which excess mucus is formed as thick yellow or greenish-yellow sputum. Coughing and breathlessness increased as the disease progresses and the more damaged the system becomes and more likely infections such as pneumonia can occur.

LINK BETWEEN SMOKING AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Smoking increases the concentration of blood cholesterol which is a risk factor to cardiovascular disease. Smokers increase the risk of having heart attack or stroke. Nicotine has a direct effect on raising blood fat level and being overweight increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. CO from the cigarette combines with hemoglobin and reduces oxygen transport by about 15% in smokers, oxygen deficiency is a cause of angina and may induce heart attack. Nicotine increase blood pressure and constriction of blood vessels.

 LINK BETWEEN SMOKING AND PULMONARY RESPIRATORY DISEASE

This includes the development of tumours in animals exposed to smoke and the identification of carcinogens in tars. Both lung cancer and COPD has been observed in dogs, and tars have cause growth in the skin of mice.

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD OR FOOD SUPPLEMENTS RICHED WITH ANTIOXIDANT TO THESE CHRONIC DISEASES

Most phytochemicals have antioxidant activities and protect our cells against oxidative damage cause by free radicals. Ally sulfides found in(onions,leeks,garlic),carotenoids(fruits,carrots),lycopene(tomatoes),Flavonoids(fruits and vegetables),polyphenols(tea, grapes). These are some of the phytochemicals with antioxidant activity. Dietary spices are heterogeneous collection of wide variety of volatile and non-volatile chemical obtained from dried aromatic parts of plants-generally the seeds, berries, roots, pods and sometimes leave. Population that use spices or herbs in their diet have been shown to have lower incidence of chronic disease [Duthie, et al., (2003). Antioxidants have the property to neutralize free radicals without becoming a free radical themselves. They could act against oxidation by decreasing localized oxygen concentration, quenching or scavenging singlet oxygen that can react directly with membrane lipids to produce peroxides and preventing the initiation of peroxidation. Oxygen free radicals appear to be an important factor in chronic inflammatory joint disease such as rheumatoid arthritis. Single oxygen can also be generated in the lens of the eye and contribute to development of cataracts. Free radicals superoxide and hydrogen peroxide can stimulate growth in a variety of malignant mammalian cell types. It has been found that some of these volatile oils which their component is riched with an antioxidant are cytostatic to tumour cell lines and can offer to novel anti-proliferative agents [Dorman et al., (1995).

From my undergraduate studies some of these spices were extracted and checked of its antioxidant activity and was found positive with less toxicological profile. Using spices, fruits, vegetables, help to reduce the risk of cancer, heart muscle, fast ageing, high blood pressure, diabetes, autism, rheumatoid. Aframomum citratum locally known as mbongo spice contains geraniol (70%) which acts osteoporosis and linalool (15.1%) which inhibits liver cancer cells from replicating. This research was carried out by my supervisor and I in Biochemistry lab of Madonna university. Phytochemical screening of Hibiscus cannabinus which is found in almost all villages and countries have been shown to contain phenolic, saponin, tannins, alkaloid (Agbor et al., 2004). The plant has rich fiber content such as cellulosic fiber (Eromosele et al., 1999). Sub- acute administration of H. cannabinus significantly reduced the serum level of cholesterol and triglycerides in a dose dependent manner. Lowering the serum cholesterol level is an approach to the prevention of atherosclerosis and its administration at sub-chronic levels significantly reduced the concentration of serum glucose and could thus find applications in the management of hyperglycemia. Isoflavones found in soy, imitate human estrogen and help reduce menopausal syndrome and osteoporosis. Indole which are found in cabbage, stimulate enzyme that makes the oestrogen less effective and could could reduce the risk of breast cancer.saponin found in beans interfere with the replication of cell DNA,capsaisin found in hot peppers, protect DNA from carcinogens. Antioxidants include vitamin A, C, E. no matter our age, cells within our bodies oxidizes.  As we grow older these oxidized cells are not replaced as quickly with healthy new cells. Antioxidants found in these natural foods can help any excess free radicals. The body cannot store it in the same way it stores nutrients and fat, so a constant replenishment is needed in order to keep our cells stable and balanced.

CHRONIC DISEASES

                                    CHRONIC DISEASE

INTRODUCTION:                 

Chronic diseases have been the major cause of death in American, sub-Sahara African and other countries. These diseases last years in our body and require ongoing medical attentions. It is known that most of their common causes are lack of physical activity, poor nutrition, tobacco use, excessive alcohol consumption and over use of antibiotics. Chronic conditions include problems such as substance abuse, addiction disorder, mental illness, cognitive impairment disorder, dementia and developmental disabilities. Theses conditions falls under diseases such cancer, cardiovascular diseases,diabetes,depression,hypertension,chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD),osteoporosis, neurodegenerative diseases such as parkinson’s,rheumatoidarthritis,ulcerativecolitis,stroke,chronichepatitis,HIV/AIDS etc. Prevention is effective in reducing the effect of chronic conditions in particular early detection, clinical preventive services which include screening for the existence of the disease and predisposition to its development thus enabling earlier intervention and management.

Studies have it that lung cancer is the leading cause of death cancer death, and cigarette smoking causes almost all the cases. Some kind of chronic disease like cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, arthritis, hepatitis can be found before they cause symptoms. Early diagnosis may lead to higher rates of successful treatment and extended life. More and more research has been carried out on these diseases.

Lung cancer is most common cause of cancer in men and third most common cause of death in UK after stroke and coronary heart disease. It is caused by cells dividing repeatedly out of control. They seized to respond to the normal signal around them and formed unspecialized masses of cells called tumour. Smoking is number one caused of lung cancer. Cigarette smoke contains more than 400 different chemicals including tars. Many of these chemicals are carcinogens and many of theses chemicals affect the non smokers inhaling the smoke. Lung cancer takes many years to develop but changes in lung can begin as soon as the person is exposed to cancer causing substances. Lung cancer can be prevented by quitting smoking, taking notes of the kind of fumes you inhaled because some of these fumes from industries and from incinerator contain carcinogens and mutagens reducing excess intake of alcohol because both acute and chronic ethanol consumption increases serum estrogen and decreases serum androgen. Excess estrogen and androgen is associated with increased cancer risk, the effect of alcohol on sex hormone explains the increase in breast cancer. Acetaldehyde the first metabolic product of ethanol is toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic and it interfere with DNA repair by DNA- repair enzyme blockage by binding to DNA and proteins (alcohol and alcoholism; poschl, G; 39(3):155-16592004).nearly half of all cancer in the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx and esophagus have been attributed to alcohol. Reduced nutrients due to reduced absorption and reduced consumption of food nutrients associated with obtaining calories from alcohol, generation of free radicals, liver carcinogens metabolism can as well increase incidence of cancer.

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES

The two most common causes of human death, myocardial infarction and stroke, are caused by the interruption of the blood oxygen supply to a portion of the heart or the brain respectively. In the absence of the oxygen, a cell which must then rely only on glycolysis for ATP production rapidly depletes it stores of phosphocreatinine (a source of rapid ATP production) and glycolysis. As the rate of ATPO production falls below the levels required by the membrane ion pump for the maintenance of proper intracellular ionic concentration, the osmotic balance of the system is disrupted so that the cells and its membrane- enveloped organelles begins to swell. Many studies of cardiovascular disease, have given mixed results. Use of alcohol has been associated with higher risk of mortality from hypertension hemorrhagic stroke and cardiomyopathy. Alcohol reacts with fatty acids to produce fatty acid ethyl esters which are toxic to mitochondria-leading to heart muscle cell damage.

a)     Ethanol impairment of protein synthesis affects both skeletal and heart muscle. In isolated heart cells ethanol reduces the number and uniformity of fibrils. Heart muscle in alcoholic shows loss of contractile element [the international journal of Biochemistry and cell biology 33:457-473(2001)]. Increasing physical activity, avoid strenuous exercise that can lead to prolong oxygen debt. Oxygen obstruction can lead to ischemic heart disease such as arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis, condition leading to the deposition of fatty material containing high proportion of cholesterol and that of calcium in the arteries. As the plagues increases in size, it protrudes into the rumen of the arteries and begin to block it and this condition lead to blood clothing which commonly occurs in aorta and coronary artery. Once the coronary artery is interfered angina and heart attack may result. Checking the temperature you exposed yourself to because when oxygen deficiency prevents oxidative phoshorylation from providing sufficient ATP from heart function, ischemia may result. When the artery supplying oxygen to the brain is blocked, the brain tissues becomes starved of oxygen and dies, this can lead to stroke. Excessive intake of alcohol should be reduced and quitting smoking is necessary. Smoking increases the concentration of blood cholesterol which is a risk factor .smokers increase the risk of having heart attack or stroke. Adopting a healthy diet is also a preventive measure. Eating of diet that is high in saturated fat, vitamins, and soluble fiber is encouraged. Cardiovascular disease is associated with affluence and is avoidable by change of life style. Different characteristics of aerobioc and anaerobic metabolism permit us to understand certain aspects of cardiovascular diseases.